Business Level Strategy Of Ford Motors Essay - 2239 Words

The business level strategy comprises of the business actions aimed at providing value to customers, the deployment of the business level strategies takes place within the scope of a particular individual markets for the company products. This paper discusses the business level strategies deployed by Ford Motors and how the company’s values can be better linked in order to create value for the company and how Ford Motors can place itself in terms of the five forces of competition. The business level strategy deployed by Ford Motors is the cost leadership strategy, which puts emphasis on operating at lower costs, but not essentially offering the lowest prices in the market (Haines 2004). Therefore, a firm can use such a position to reduce its prices in order to increase its market share or maintain the current prices and increase its revenue per unit items compared to its competitors. The principal idea of the low cost strategy is that cost and prices are not dependent, and the strategy puts a lot more emphasis on costs to achieve a status that it can use to foster competitive advantage or use lower costs to increase its profitability (Haines 2004). A cost leadership strategy is effective only if other competitors in the motor industry cannot imitate (Hill and Cronk 2010). The company is deploying strategies to significantly reduce its operational costs, which is a critical success factor for the business. This means that the firm has to make effective use of t he resources atShow MoreRelatedAssignment 3 - Business Level Corporate Level Strategies - Ford Motor Company2068 Words   |  9 PagesBusiness-Level and Corporate-Level Strategies – Ford Motor Company Strayer University BUS499, 14 February 2016 Business-Level and Corporate-Level Strategies – Ford Motor Company It all began in 1896 when Henry Ford built the Quadricycle that rode on four bicycle wheels, operated by a four-horsepower engine with only two forward gears and no reverse ability. Henry soon joined a group that founded the Detroit Automobile Company but left within one year and would soon incorporate the Ford Motor CompanyRead MoreFord Motor Company: An Analysis1805 Words   |  7 Pages1. Ford Motor Company engages in a number of business-level strategies. Three of the most important are where the company sells, where it produces, and what it produces. 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Killing Animals Is A Normal Way Of Life - 1658 Words

For many, killing animals is a normal way of life. After all, animals are here on earth to eat right? I was raised to think just this way. In my family, we learned to hunt and fish at an early age. We have even produced a few hogs of our own to butcher. A life without meat seemed insane to the younger me. As I aged I got involved in 4-H, an agriculture program for kids. Children with the help of their parents raise and then sell animals such as pigs, chickens, turkeys, goats, rabbit, and cows at their local fairs. I spent eight years in this program starting at the age of nine. I was a freshman in high school when I got involved in FFA, another agriculture program but for teenagers. I learned the ins and outs of the agriculture†¦show more content†¦This makes hogs the more efficient choice to produce for our consumption. Now, of course, I have never eaten a dog. That would go against the American norm, but I definitely make it a point to ask people why they choo se one but not the other. As a senior in high school, I did a research essay on the treatment of animals in the meat industry. After my findings, I strongly considered becoming a vegetarian but never made the steps to. It is now two years after I graduated high school and I am questioning the world more now than ever. I have heard of new studies showing that eating meat is not just harming innocent animals. It s harming humans and the environment as a whole. Over the past year, I have been trying to reduce my footprint on this earth. After hearing a few shocking facts, it was enough to push me to the next step to becoming a vegetarian. Since at the moment I am going off a few facts, I wanted to dig further and find the truth. I want to know is the meat industry harming our environment? I am ready to uncover the hidden negativities of this industry and find out if the good outweighs the bad. A staggering 80 percent of the deforestation has been caused by agriculture. I have always known that a whopping 71 percent of the earth s surface is made up of water, leaving 29 percent as a land surface. This made me wonder how much of the land is used for agriculture? Ann

The Art of Ballet Free Essays

The art of ballet started out as a fun dance for the wealthy and throughout history, has evolved into an elegant, world wide form of structured expression. From its beginnings in European cultures to its now widespread and diverse variations, ballet shows no signs of slowing down in popularity any time soon. Early ballet was influenced by the social dancing of its day, ballroom dancing. We will write a custom essay sample on The Art of Ballet or any similar topic only for you Order Now This art was born when the ancient Greek and Roman renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries took place, reviving an interest in all things human and the arts. The word â€Å"ballet† derives from the Italian word â€Å"balla,† meaning dance. In the Italian city-states of the fifteenth century, many â€Å"balli† meaning â€Å"dances† were held. The ballis involved specific steps that our generation would classify as ballroom steps. Ballet got much recognition when Louis XIV ascended to the throne of France. He came from an arts school where he studied the arts of fencing, music, and dance. His passion for dance was very serious. So serious in fact, that he established the Academic Royale de Danse in 1661, employing 13 ballet instructors. Another well –known founder of ballet is Jean-Georgeos Noverre, also known as the â€Å"Shakespeare of Dance†. He argued for a new, more expressive form of ballet. He created ballet d’action, meaning ballet with out instruments. The Romantic Period played a very important role in the development of women in ballet. This period began in the early eighteen-hundreds. The milestones accomplished within this time period included large female background dancers to accompany the prima ballerina, the lightening of female costumes, and women dancing en pointe. Dancing en pointe, turn out, and the basic five ballet positions exemplify ballet, and are now standard for all ballerinas. The next step on the road to modern ballet is the formation of classical ballet. While the first production of the ballet known as La Sylphide took place in Paris and most famous ballerinas of the day were still coming from Italy, the second half of the nineteenth century saw the axis of the ballet world shift from Western Europe to Russia. However, a Frenchman was responsible for this shift. Marius Petita created five of ballet’s greatest classics in the late nineteenth century: Don Quixote, La Bayadere, The Sleeping Beauty, Swan Lake, and The Nutcracker, as well as restaging Giselle and La Coppelia. All of these classics share common similarities marking them as the trademarks of what is now regarded as the classical repertoire. They generally begin with group dances and evolved into complex stories between two or three main characters. The grand pas de deux, meaning big step for two, commonly begins with an adagio (slow, lyrical dance) between a male and a female dancer. The dance includes high extensions of the woman’s legs, multiple pirouettes, and big leaps forming a long straight line with the female’s legs in the air. Following the adagio is the allegro. This portion is merely a solo showcase of the male dancer’s ability and strength across the stage. An allegro for a ballerina features softer, yet intricate footwork and pirouettes. Finally, we have the coda, or finale, which reunites the dancers in an exuberant flourish. During that time period, three schools of classical ballet emerged. The French school is the oldest of the three. Known for its grace and elegance rather than its technical virtuosity, the French school was nevertheless held in high regard. The Italian school was known for its dexterity, difficulty of its steps, high leaps, and multiple turns. Lastly there was the Russian school. The Russian school was basically a hybrid of the prior schools. This school was held in high esteem due to its combination of serene elegance, breathtaking choreography, and the most complete and well-developed technique in all of ballet. The Russian ballet school slowly led the movement of ballet throughout the world and is responsible for how far ballet has grown. While Petipa’s traditional romantic style still held sway over Europe and Russia, Isadora Duncan, a freethinking American brought a completely new aesthetic to the stage. She believed in a more â€Å"anit-ballet† view of dance. She believed ballet was elitist and superficial. Duncan started a form of dance that was quite the opposite of what ballet was known for. This style of dance would be natural, free, and unbounded by rules. Duncan took her dancing on the road, touring through Europe and Russia alone, barefoot, and dressed in long tunics. The traditional aspect of her performance was the music she danced to, which was mostly Mendelssohn, Beethoven, and Chopin. She had many enemies, but with every enemy she gained, there were hundreds who thought her dramatic expression was lively and wquite enjoyable. Through the next few years, modern dancers began to fuse ballet with their own expressive movements. Also, ballet choreographers began incorporating modern techniques into their dances. As time moved forward, so did the swift evolution of ballet. Cultures took the basics and made it their own and by the late 1970’s , many classical ballet companies started incorporating modern steps into its repertoire and hiring modern choreographers to construct distinctive works on its own dancers. It is evident that as the world changes and its people continue to gain knowledge about their surroundings, the art of ballet will continue to spark interest and develop creativity in many people aspiring to gain the technique of the craft. How to cite The Art of Ballet, Essay examples

Critique Of Article Positive Accounting Theory †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Critique Of Article Positive Accounting Theory. Answer: Introduction The topic deliberated in this critique is shortcomings observed in accounting practice which has fell short of the dominant cosmic positivist research program. The central purpose of this critique is to appraise censoriously the Paul V Dunmores Half a Defense of Positive Accounting Research. This will demonstrate the influence of inadequacies in practice in attaining the potential of the authoritative extensive positive accounting theory research program (Bertomeu, Darrough and Xue 2017). The main thesis is that without satisfactory practice in PAT research program, the prospective dominant comprehensive positivist research program shall be unachievable (Christie 2007). Paul held that the present-day practice in PAT seems extremely unreserved of escalating the scientific purposes. It is furthermore maintained that apart from the discrepancies in practice of accounting, normal science as pronounced by Kuhn presents a foundation and a background anchored on Kuhns crisis besides insurgence because it remains probable to release PAT to realize its desirable potential. The assessment adopts the succeeding structure to lavishly seizure the leading argument avowed above (Watts and Zimmerman 2010). The first subsection stretches the transitory summary of the article by focusing primarily on the foremost argument of this paper. This section will encompass of the articles aim, overal findings and theoretical argument along with contribution. The second subsection digs bottomless into research question. This subcategory will principally ascertain the research question or hypothesis offered in the article. It will further discuss hypothesis or the research questions value as acknowledged and explain whether besides how such a hypothesis or research question run from the review of literature (Dunmore 2011). The third segment stipulates the theoretical framework in which the appreciation and discussion of the framework is featured along with articles theoretical substance that informed the aspect of this research. In the fourth subsection, a lengthy deliberation of limitation and significance of the article is presented. Literature is used here to converse the shortages of the theory and the methodological tactic espoused. Whether the researcher has respected such dimness and whether the investigator has made deductions admissible studies by the based on the assumed methodology is validated. It is demonstrated whether the acknowledged shortfalls have influenced substance and contribution of the article with respect to the accounting profession based on the findings established vis--vis the study method. The last segment delivers a short-lived deduction and summaries the vital facts and highlights their insinuation for this critique. Summary The article being critiqued was written by Paul V Dunmores Half a Defense of Positive Accounting Research. The article fundamentally discusses the PAT research program as concocted by Watts and Zimmerman. This claim was staked by the Watts and Zimmerman to the Positive Accounting Theory (PAT) for their assumed theory. The scholar pursued the scrutiny of the positive methodology to the accounting research. Paul perceived PAT research program as integral component wide-ranging knowledgeable project of scientific research. This program is sought to fathom besides comprehend the cause and effect association in the indispensable research world. The author has subsequently regarded PAT in the wider perspective of research program that aims at the development of causal amplification of the behavior of human under context of accounting (Volovski et al. 2017). Paul has further performed an analysis of epistemology alongside ontology of positivist accounting program (Watts and Zimmerman 2012). Numerous tests encompassing logic of statistical hypothesis whereas superficially equivalent to fabrication standard of Popper have further been recognized as inferior. Paul has further recognized that notwithstanding the comprehensive positivist research program being potentially powerful, the shortages in practice obstructs the apprehension of its jam-packed potential (Williams 2009). The widespread occurrences hindering the PAT program have likewise been documented besides the casual creation of theoretical models that necessitates testing as well as unwarranted reliance on logic hypothesis testing (Roth, Suldo and Ferron 2017). Nonexistence of interest in statistical value of parameters together with insufficient replication to permit confidence in determining the reception have supplementary been recognized as shared incapacitations (Dunmore 2011). By means of theories as standards for investigating alongside assessing qualitative data rather than as intensifications for tests is an additionally shared challenge fronting PAT program. The researcher has additionally considered evidence from pertinent alongside trustworthy articles for the authentication of the views presented in this article (Christie 2007). The scholar has additionally brush up the broader well-informed project alongside both epistemological ontological assumptions to comprehend the both the significance and discrepancies of PAT research. The assessment uncovered solemn nonappearances in the manner that PAT study is consummated that impedes PAT from recording eloquent influence to the extensive project (Fleischman et al. 2017). Paul foreshadowed that the present practice in accounting leaves PAT with considerable clumsiness to reach the envisioned scientific purposes. Though, Paul displayed self-confident that Kuhns illumination of the normal science competently fits the PAT research (Kim et al. 201). The predictions of Kuhns story are clarified in brief based on Kuhnian crisis together with insurgence. It is believed that such a crux as well as insurgence is repressed to unlock the PAT accordingly achieving its jammed potential (Pandey et al. 2017). Question/Hypothesis Paul has employed numerous hypotheses together with research questions that and explained that he is never declaring their truth, but rather just exploratory for an enthusiastic postponement of incredulity to permit their corresponding discussion. Four hypotheses have been provided by Paul and developed impartially uncertainly, mindful that for numerous of human being, they could have remained imagined disgraceful and immoral and that apparently an inordinate percentage of humanity could endure to discern the same. Hypotheses Include: The intelligent enquiry devotes to use observations to achieve an understanding of this world, and exactly of causation. This implies that folks seek out mental models that precisely map the process of causal that happen in such a world This worlds events have causes that are independently component of the world which imply that neither fully random nor the results of the interventions from outside world It is feasible for normal folks to obtain fairly dependable information concerning the events of the world via cautious observation. This, however, does not imply that persons will never be mistaken when observing, but rather such annotations are not ever exclusively unrelated to such a world A realm that is self-sufficient of imagination of people exist that was never constituted by individuals and its events are not subject to the aspirations of people control Research questions Include: In what way does PAT research used currently in accounting practice? To what level does the shortfalls in the PAT research implementation induced the incompetence of PAT research program than predicted? Theoretical Framework A theoretical framework assumed by Paul evolved from a positivist position of a displeased hypothetical physicist whose accounting research stayed positivist emphasizing either model testing/ building. The disapprovals of the author, consequently, dedicated the position of an individual discriminating that the study arrangement is amazing, however distressed by the unskilled and unfertile diversities that are currently practiced in accounting. Paul used this understanding to instinct both editors besides referees to prefer such arrangements to shove the modern arrangements towards the deliverance of PAT research to realize the wanted prospective. Paul articles theoretical substance, therefore, builds on the acknowledgment from the literature review on auditing that serious shortages exist in the contemporary practice in accounting research thereby hampering PAT research program from making a substance influence to the wider project. This is meant to establishing positive accounting research as a well-established social system to donate to the project of scientific research (Fleischman et al. 2017). It is anchored on the realization that adopting findings of Kuhn (1970) study would be despondent to influence elites to cuddle a more than ever operative paradigm. The scholar additionally recognizes an amnesty offered by the data that emerged from Fogarty and Markarian (2007) which hinted at elites comparative stance being diminishing. Consequently, the Paul anticipated forthcoming future crisis and the opportunity for the assumption of a more than ever beneficial paradigm. The author consecutively hinged his argument on the provision of suggestions for undertakings by editors alongside referees to elbow the contemporary systems towards redemptive PAT study to realize its expected potential. The author is well-versed by the gratitude that it remained significant to acknowledge the Modus Operandi of the world and later considered it as the inappropriateness that the connected study channel is unfertile and ineffective, and, henceforth, Paul has delivered certain suggestions for advancement. Limitation And Significance The systematic review of available literature on auditing via the qualitative technique assumed in this investigation is devoted to certain limitations or inadequacies. A probability of carrying onward certain errors and liabilities made by preceding investigators into the modern study is high labels one of such limitations. Furthermore, the technique limits the building of fresh results since there is no chance to collect the primary data where secondary data is used which did not capture the differences professionally. Another limitation in the theory assumed in this study is the lack of theoretical models that are tremendously specified and, therefore, it is vulnerable to permit thorough testing. Paul has documented these boundaries by signifying the need for healthier theoretical models. This suggestion arises from the backdrop of the emerging sumptuous models from analytical research that are never framed to be testable due to their unsatisfactory development alongside concentration on tractability hinged on concepts that are never meritoriously well-defined theoretically to allow operationalization (Watts and Zimmerman 2012). Paul has further recognized the absenteeism of better measurements to allow demanding testing of theoretical models because of failed concepts operationalization. Another limitation admitted is the nonexistence of homogenous reliable linear relationship-oriented manner to be espoused in measuring each study. The recurrent parameters re-invention of measurement as well as re-estimation with individual sample per study has also been recognized as the drawback to positive research from achieving its bursting potential (Franco and Roach 2017). The author has efficaciously haggard theoretical implications from the investigation which are defensible methodologically. This is for the reason that the confines have been recognized from the previous auditing literature systematic review that have consequently precast the foundation for suggesting improvements to permit PAT research to achieve its overflowing prospective. The suggested need for endless fluctuation emphasis away from the hypotheses testing in the direction of parameters estimation after being well-versed by the concentration of hypothesis testing from the preceding reviewed literature (Faff et al. 2017). The precincts have meaningfully censoriously biased the insinuation of the study even though they have concomitantly unreservedly disadvantaged the contribution of the article to the accounting practice. This is caused by the awkwardness in methodology together with theories in the article that did not avail chance that present dependable results, nevertheless, the accounting is better going forward by suggesting recommendation that are indispensable to describe subsequent study to sanction PAT study to recognize its jam-packed package. Conclusion The scholar has unearthed that models which are tremendously specified and, hence, exceptionally defenseless, besides being undertaken extremely as thorough testing subjects are required (Baiman 2010). Paul has further accredited that unacceptable progress is ongoing in positive accounting research as a straight repercussion of using ad hoc quantitative models which are weakened to mere statements of the expected sign of a linking between two variables (Volovski et al. 2017). There is a need for effective measurement to enhance the testing of theoretical models rigorously by carefully operationalizing the concepts (Baiman 2010). The author calls for augmented courtesy towards choosing accurate practical form. The critiques implications, therefore, is that positive researchs limitations have been recognized and counteractive schemes for upgrading suggested. Adopting these improvements will make positive research achieve its jam-packed potential. References Baiman, S., 2010. Agency research in managerial accounting: A second look. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 15(4), pp.341-371. Bertomeu, J., Darrough, M. and Xue, W., 2017. Optimal conservatism with earnings manipulation. Contemporary Accounting Research, 34(1), pp.252-284. Christie, A.A., 2007. On cross-sectional analysis in accounting research. Journal of Accounting and Economics, 9(3), pp.231-258. Dillard, J. and Vinnari, E., 2017. A case study of critique: Critical perspectives on critical accounting. Critical Perspectives on Accounting, 43, pp.88-109. Dunmore, P.V., 2011. Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research. Available at SSRN 1955419. Dunmore, P.V., 2011. Half a Defence of Positive Accounting Research. Faff, R.W., Carrick, R., Chen, A., Escobar, M., Khong, B.X.M., Nguyen, B.H. and Tunny, W., 2017. Fantasy Pitching III: UQ Summer Research Scholarsthe Role of'Money'in the 21st Century. Fleischman, G.M., Stephenson, T., Walker, K.B. and Cook, K.A., 2017. Factors that Influence Accounting Faculty Career Satisfaction: Comparisons by Program Prestige and Tenure Status. Accounting Horizons. Franco, A. and Roach, S.S., 2017. Factors That Determine Accounting Anxiety Among Users of English as a Second Language Within an International MBA Program. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 16(1). Kim, H.J., Min, A., Im, S.A., Jang, H., Lee, K.H., Lau, A., Lee, M., Kim, S., Yang, Y., Kim, J. and Kim, T.Y., 2017. Anti?tumor activity of the ATR inhibitor AZD6738 in HER2 positive breast cancer cells. International Journal of Cancer, 140(1), pp.109-119. Pandey, S.K., Pandey, S., Breslin, R.A. and Broadus, E.D., 2017. Public Service Motivation Research Program: Key Challenges and Future Prospects. Roth, R.A., Suldo, S.M. and Ferron, J.M., 2017. Improving Middle School Students' Subjective Well-Being: Efficacy of a Multicomponent Positive Psychology Intervention Targeting Small Groups of Youth. School Psychology Review. Volovski, M., Murillo-Hoyos, J., Saeed, T.U. and Labi, S., 2017. Estimation of Routine Maintenance Expenditures for Highway Pavement Segments: Accounting for Heterogeneity Using Random-Effects Models. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems, p.04017006. Watts, R.L. and Zimmerman, J.L., 2010. Positive accounting theory: a ten year perspective. Accounting review, pp.131-156. Watts, R.L. and Zimmerman, J.L., 2012. Positive accounting theory. Williams, P.F., 2009. The logic of positive accounting research. Accounting, Organizations and Society, 14(5), pp.455-468.

Jonathan Swifts Gullivers Travels Essays - Gullivers Travels

Jonathan Swifts Gulliver's Travels Subject: English Language: English Jonathan Swifts Gulliver's Travels Gulliver in Houynhnmland One of the most interesting questions about Gullivers Travels is whether the Houyhnhnms represent an ideal of rationality or whether on the other hand they are the butt of Swift's satire. In other words, in Book IV, is Swift poking fun at the talking horses or does he intend for us to take them seriously as the proper way to act? If we look closely at the way that the Houyhnhnms act, we can see that in fact Swift does not take them seriously: he uses them to show the dangers of pride. First we have to see that Swift does not even take Gullver seriously. For instance, his name sounds much like gullible, which suggests that he will believe anything. Also, when he first sees the Yahoos and they throw excrement on him, he responds by doing the same in return until they run away. He says, "I must needs discover some more rational being," (203) even though as a human he is already the most rational being there is. This is why Swift refers to Erasmus Darwins discovery of the origin of the species and the voyage of the Beagle--to show how Gulliver knows that people are at the top of the food chain. But if Lemule Gulliver is satirized, so are the Houyhnhnms, whose voices sound like the call of castrati. They walk on two legs instead of four, and seem to be much like people. As Gulliver says, "It was with the utmost astonishment that I witnessed these creatures playing the flute and dancing a Vienese waltz. To my mind, they seemed like the greatest humans ever seen in court, even more dextrous than the Lord Edmund Burke" (162). As this quote demonstrates, Gulliver is terribly impressed, but his admiration for the Houyhnhnms is short-lived because they are so prideful. For instance, the leader of the Houyhnhnms claims that he has read all the works of Charles Dickens, and that he can singlehandedly recite the names of all the Kings and Queens of England up to Geo rge II. Swift subtly shows that this Houyhnhnms pride is misplaced when, in the middle of the intellectual competition, he forgets the name of Queen Elizabeths husband. Swifts satire of the Houyhnhnms comes out in other ways as well. One of the most memorable scenes is when the dapple grey mare attempts to woo the horse that Guenivre has brought with him to the island. First she acts flirtatiously, parading around the bewildered horse. But when this does not have the desired effect, she gets another idea: "As I watched in amazement from my perch in the top of a tree, the sorrel nag dashed off and returned with a yahoo on her back who was yet more monstrous than Mr. Pope being fitted by a clothier. She dropped this creature before my nag as if offering up a sacrifice. My horse sniffed the creature and turned away." (145) It might seem that we should take this scene seriously as a failed attempt at courtship, and that consequently we should see the grey mare as an unrequited lover . But it makes more sense if we see that Swift is being satiric here: it is the female Houyhnhnm who makes the move, which would not have happened in eighteenth-century England. The Houyhnhm is being prideful, and it is that pride that makes him unable to impress Gullivers horse. Gulliver imagines the horse saying, Sblood, the notion of creating the bare backed beast with an animal who had held Mr. Pope on her back makes me queezy (198). A final indication that the Houyhnmns are not meant to be taken seriously occurs when the leader of the Houynhms visits Lilliput, where he visits the French Royal Society. He goes into a room in which a scientist is trying to turn wine into water (itself a prideful act that refers to the marriage at Gallilee). The scientist has been working hard at the experiment for many years without success, when the Houyhnmn arrives and immediately knows that to do: "The creature no sooner stepped through the doorway than he struck

The People vs. Eighth Amendment essays

The People vs. Eighth Amendment essays The People vs. Eighth Amendment The business of cruel and unusual punishment has long been juxtaposed with the discussion of the death penalty. Beginning with Adam and Eve and continuing to the present day, society has struggled with the notion of punishment. From Salem, Massachusetts, where 24 alleged witches hanged, to Starke, Florida, the home of the states infamous electric chair, Old Sparky, punishment has evolved from a humiliating, public spectacle to our current system of private, isolated incarceration. In the 1972 United States Supreme Court decision of Furman v. Georgia the relationship between public consensus and correlating jurisprudence is clear. In this case the Supreme Court reverses Georgias convicted of three Negro men to death. Capital punishment is struck down on the basis of violating the cruel and unusual punishment clause of the Eighth Amendment. The court concluded the penalty was arbitrary, lacking guidelines for juries and judges, and consisting of insufficient due process safeguards. Many justices in their concurring opinions justify their opinions by stating the penalty was morally unacceptable to the people of the United States. The decision maps out a repetitive trend between what the people think is right and how the court responds. Less than four years after Furman v. Georgia, the Supreme Court reverses the decision to do away with the death penalty and instead reinstates it, even broadening the boundaries in some aggravated rape cases (Furman). The juvenile death penalty is a very controversial issue and it is becoming increasingly unacceptable in most countries. In fact, the United States is one of the few countries left to sign the Convention on the Rights of the Child which abolishes the death penalty for juveniles. Likewise, the United States is one of only eight countries in the world to have executed a juvenile offender since 1990. In Octobe...

This paper needs have 3 fully developed paragraphs. Will upload more Essay

This paper needs have 3 fully developed paragraphs. Will upload more details - Essay Example elf-help book’, Walden, where the author urges the readers to assert their individuality, even if it meant turning down their family’s hopes or expectations of them. He then proceeds to take examples from America’s economic philosophy as well as his personal experiences as a psychiatrist to point out how the goal of self-sufficiency and individual enterprise appears to be very deeply entrenched in the American psyche. He points out how a new piece of legislation (passed around the time of publication of the essay in 1997) in Louisiana that allowed for something called a ‘covenant marriage’ wherein getting divorce would be a more difficult proposition than usual, was not really reflective of traditional American values but the opposite. The fact that the whole school of psychotherapy, as prominently practiced and advanced by personalities like Erik Erikson, Murray Bowen or Carl Rogers, emphasizes ‘enhanced autonomy’, is taken by Kramer to indicate how American society at large valued individual autonomy over what he terms ‘mutuality.’ Kramer’s concludes: ‘Though we profess abhorrence of d ivorce, I suspect that the divorce rate reflects our national values with great exactness.’ To counter this increased dependence on autonomous existence Kramer suggests resetting ‘mutuality’ as a goal worth aspiring for. He cites another school of psychiatry as exemplified by the work of Jean Baker Miller which suggests that finding one’s self does not necessarily have to be an exaggeratedly lonely process. Finding oneself through relating to others was just as satisfying and genuine a process of self-development. Kramer also argues that women have traditionally been considered the more tactful ones and therefore the onus of being the one to compromise in a situation of conflict often falls on them, rather unfairly. This too needs to be changed and expanded to each gender so that the relationship is one of true equality. Kramer makes a strong

Trends, Issues and Community Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Trends, Issues and Community - Essay Example However, neoclassical approaches are also not without their flaws and thus practical policymaking ought to be about ensuring that the government is driven hard to deliver that which is the best from available resources. This brief essay presents a discussion about the neoclassical and the Keynesian or the welfare state approaches to policy making and presents an examination of the impact of neoclassical approaches to policymaking in Australia. I certify that, except where cited in the text, this work is the result of research carried out by the author of this study. The main content of the study which has been presented contains work that has not previously been reported anywhere. Individuals and communities in Australia and in other developed nations are often perplexed at the demise of the so called welfare state which had done far more to try to look after the individual than what is often observed today. Thus, government policies are now forcing individual citizens to take on far more responsibility in nearly everything, ranging from welfare, education to health despite a certain lack of satisfaction with this approach from the citizens (Centre for Policy Development, 2008, â€Å"Real World Economics†). The new policymaking is explained in terms of the limited ability of the community to care for the individual due to resource constraints and a shift from the Keynesian / Welfare state approach to the neoclassical or the new right approaches that are designed not only to provide but also to alter individual behaviour in a manner that is likely to be less of a burden to the society at large. The change that is now observed is often disturbing for those who had seen far better days when government really cared and help was always available in difficult times. Thus, it makes sense to try to understand what guides the new policymaking that has had an impact on nearly all facets of individual’s existence within the community and why Australians and others

Industrial Relations Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Industrial Relations - Article Example In simple terms industrial relationships can be called multidisciplinary field that refers to the employment relationship. Sometimes it is also named employment relationship because of the negligible importance of non industrial employment relationship. But to consider it just as labor relations is an oversimplification because it has much more to it. Technically speaking Industrial relations defined in business terms as â€Å"Employer – employee relationships covered specifically under collective bargaining and industrial relations law.† ... hnically speaking Industrial relations defined in business terms as â€Å"Employer – employee relationships covered specifically under collective bargaining and industrial relations law.† Industrial relations not an outdated topic There are a number of researchers who assume that Industrial relations study has become obsolete and proposed closure of UK’s most study centers on the subject as (Darlington1 (ed.) (2009). They believe that academic industrial relations are obsolete and are no more required. It has been replaced and dealt better in newer subjects such as HRM, Human resource management and OB organizational behavior. These subjects deal with the human factor while industrial relations study focuses on the collective approach. Collective institutions and processes (trade unions, strike and collective bargaining. Three aspects of employment relationship Those who believe in industrial relation perspective identified three important aspects. They are as un der. (Trevor Colling, 2010) Indeterminacy Inequality of employment relationship Dynamism Indeterminacy Indeterminacy in the sense, that unlike other contracts it does not involve physical exchange of goods and services for money. But the contract is made on the basis of the capacity to perform and produce the desirable and the potential to purchase those goods services. In the labor contract a worker or employee only sells his ability to work which is intangible which can only be materialized when the actual work is done and the worker is involved in the production process. A gap can exist between the perceived, expectation standard of performance and the actual one. Inequality of employment relationship Inequality exists in the relationship between the employee and employer. An employee is not usually in

Concepts in Differential Privacy

Concepts in Differential Privacy Abstract Stored data in search log is insecure process to the search engine. Search log contains extremely sensitive data, as evidenced by the AOL incident. To Store information in the search log is identify the behavior of user. To maintain this sensitive data is risky process, because some security methods containing the drawbacks. Search engine companies provide security for search logs, in some cases intruder identifies the stored data then loss occurred. This paper provides security methods for the search data against the intruder. To store the data in the search log based on the keywords, clicks, queries etc. Anonymization is the method provides security for data but it loss the granularity. And another method is â‚ ¬-differential privacy provide utility for the problem. (â‚ ¬,∂)-probabilistic privacy used to calculate the noise distribution. ZEALOUS algorithm propose in this paper provide effective results with (â‚ ¬1,∂1)-indistingushability. This paper concludes w ith the comparable utility with the k-anonymity, â‚ ¬-differential privacy. To this algorithm produce the effective result. Keywords: Security, Privacy, Data Anonymity, Information Protection, Differential Privacy, Histogram INTRODUCTION To publish the search query logs are useful to know the behavior of a user. To interact users into search engine information stored in the form of search log. This stores the information based on the following schema {User_id, Query, Time, Clicks} Here User_id identifies the particular user. Query identifies the group of keywords to be searched by the user in search engine. User search the keyword in search engine like â€Å"Java† then relevant information related to Java will be occurred in the browser. User clicks on the particular link it will store in the search log as number counts. And also store the time of the click on the user. Single user consists of a user history or search history by the search entities. User history partitioned into sessions by the similar queries. Queries can be grouped into form a query pair, this used for the preparation of data in the search log. Query pairs can be divided into sessions and each session contains the subsequent query. Generally keywords can be divided into two ways. Those are 1. Frequent 2. Infrequent 1. Frequent Keyword: Previous methods only introduce these keywords. Because of this keywords are produce easily with search logs compare to the infrequent. Users search the keyword in the search engine based on that criteria identify the frequent keywords. 2. Infrequent Keywords: Proposed method for this paper is to publish search log with infrequent keywords. To publish this keyword is to loss the utility and produce less results compare to frequent keywords. In the previous method k-anonymity the main aim of this method is to define effective anonymization models for query log data along with techniques to achieve such anonymiation. Publishing of user query search logs has become a sensitive issue. To develop anonymization methods to publish the searc log data without breaching privacy or reduce utility. Drawback of this method is to identify the data to the external linked attributes. Introduce Quasi-identifier to the identification of an individual by combining to the external data. Following is an example data set User Registration Search_log Fig 1: Anonymization of the data In the above tables explains that the user registration contains all the user details of the user history. Search_log table contains the data of the user searched data. These two tables are externally linked to each other with this data loss occurred. Putting these searches together may easily reveal the identity of the user. The idea behind this k-anonymity is provide guarantee to each and every individual and hidden the group of size k with respect to the quasi-identifiers. To produce the search logs with â‚ ¬-differential privacy provide good utility, but problem with the search logs is noise added to the search logs. Several methods are used to produce random noise in the differential privacy. According to this paper classify them as two categories Data-independent noise Data-dependent noise Adding noise to the data this data-independent noise is most basic one. Laplace noise addition belongs to this category. Compare to the data-dependent noise is most complex, but usually they lead to less distortion being introduced. But this paper focus on the data-independent noise, which is most frequently uses in data sets. To produce effective results with â‚ ¬-differential privacy add laplace distribution to the result. Zealous algorithm consists a two phase framework for the purpose of identify the frequent items in the search log. And set two threshold values to publish the search logs with more privacy. Search engine companies apply this algorithm to generate statics with (â‚ ¬,∂)-probabilistic differentially private to retaining good utility for the applications. Beyond publishing search logs this paper believe that findings are of interest when publishing frequent item sets. This algorithm protects privacy against much stronger attackers than those compare the previous methods. RELATED WORK Search Log Anonymization In the previous incident occur in the AOL search log, it reveals the data of a user. Adar propose a method it appears at least t times before it can be decoded, which may potentially remove too many unused queries. And another method tokenize each query and hashes the corresponding log identifiers proposed by Kumar at el.[21]. This method improve the frequency of the search and leaks the data through hidden tokens. To overcome the problems in previous method introduce the anonymization models have been developed for search log release. Hong et al. [17] and Liu at al.[23] anonymized search logs based on k-anonymization which is not accurate as differential privacy. Xiong at el. [15] presents the query log analysis applications and various granularities of releasing log information and their associated privacy threats. Korolova et al. [20] release first applied the accurate privacy notion to release the search log based on differential privacy by adding Laplace noise. To add the Laplace noise to the counts of selected queries and urls is straightforward directly maximize the output utility with optimization models. Publish the frequent keywords, queries and clicks in search logs and comparison for two relaxations of â‚ ¬-differential privacy. This paper works related to framework for collecting, storing, and mining search logs in a distributed manner. Differential Privacy Dwork at al. [7,8] propose the definition of differential privacy. A randomized algorithm is differential private if for any pair of neighboring inputs, the probability of generating the same output. This means that two data sets are close to each other, a differential privacy algorithm behave same on the two data sets. This process provide sufficient privacy protection for user data. And also introduce the data publishing techniques which ensure â‚ ¬-differential privacy while providing accurate result. Search queries contain sensitive information it can lead to re-identification, approaches include query results, user-id to prevent re-identification of individuals from the search queries. This approach differs from the above it interact access framework that does not directly depend on anonymization for privacy, it differs from the semantic policies and differential privacy.

Chinese Prostitution :: essays research papers

In 1850, only 7 Chinese women were in San Francisco compared to the 4,018 Chinese men. These lows numbers could’ve been because Chinese men were afraid to bring their wives and raise families in a place full of racial violence. The growing anti-Chinese sentiment and few labor opportunities reduced the chances for entry of Chinese women. The few women in San Francisco’s Chinatown basically turned Chinatown into a bachelor’s society. Many men went to brothel houses to release their sexual tensions, thus increasing the demands and values of prostitution. Prostitution in Chinatown increased, and in 1870, 61 percent of the 3536 Chinese women in California as prostitutes (Takaki, 1998). By 1879, seventy-one percent of Chinese women in San Francisco were prostitutes. However, the increased amount of Chinese women becoming a prostitute was not by choice. Immigrant women who became prostitutes, such as Wong Ah So, came to America on promises of marriage made by men only to be forced or tricked into prostitution. Chan's book, "Asian Americas: An Interpretive History", was able to shed some light as to why so few Chinese women were able to enter the U.S. From the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, Chinese women were only allowed to enter the U.S. as the wives and daughters of merchants or U.S. citizens. Several acts, such as the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and the Page Law, were passed in an attempt to stop the immigration of Chinese because many anti-Chinese individuals assumed that all Chinese women were prostitutes. As Chan states in her book, the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act suspended the entry of Chinese laborers for ten years but exempted merchants, students and teachers, diplomats, and travelers from its provisions (Chan, 54). Under the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, only women who were native-born, married or born overseas to merchants in the U.S. could immigrate, thus resulting in an average of 108 Chinese immigrant women in 1882. The Page Law of 1875, which "forbid the entry of Chinese, Japanese, and Mongolian contract laborers, women for the purpose of prostitution, and felons" was so strictly enforced that legitimate wives had trouble entering America (Chan, 54). Yung argues that in order for Chinese women to enter the country, they had to prove that they were "moral" women. "Bound feet became a moral standard for Chinese women at the checkpoint" (Yung, Judith). This standard, however, didn't apply to all women.

A place you would love to return to again

I would love to go back to Mumbai in India, if I ever get a chance. Mumbai is one of the metropolitan cities of India. It is famous for its warm people, moderate climate, Elephanta Caves and beaches like Chawpatti, Juhu and Marine drive.It is the capital of the state of Maharashtra. Seven islands whose names are Colaba, Mahim, Parel, Mazagaon, Old Woman's Island, Wadala, and Matunga-Sion join together to form Mumbai. It is a city which is close to the Arabian Sea. It is also called Bollywood city, where most of the actors and actresses of the Hindi film industry live. I would love to return to this place because I have spent a memorable childhood in this city.Mumbai is very close to my heart. I got an opportunity to visit this place when I was studying in school. The place looked very beautiful in the eyes of a 9 yr old girl. We lived far from the city centre. There were mountains at the backdrop and when it rained, I could see the waterfalls from the window of my house.There were co conut tree all around which also added to the beauty. There was also a playing ground nearby where I played with other kids of my age. The place looked attractive to me because it was totally different from the place where we lived before we came here. In Mumbai I loved the open space it provided and of course the mountains.I have lovely childhood memories of Mumbai. I spend my school days in this city. I think this is one of the reasons that I love this place so much. I made many friends in this place. My best was a girl from Mumbai.I knew her from my school days; she studied with me in the same school. We remained friends for many years, even after I returned to Kolkata, my native place. I met girls and boys of different culture and background and had the opportunity to enjoy many parties, picnics and trips together.I still remember some activities that my family and I did in Mumbai, which was never possible in Kolkata as my father became very busy with his work. On holidays and s ummer vacations, we visited many places like the zoo, the Gate of India, Ajanta Ellora caves and Elephanta Caves.We also visited a nearby hill station called Bahabaleshwar and Goa, an exquisite place near Mumbai. I remember that most of the days after dinner we use to go for a walk. On the way there were many ice-cream stalls and my father always bought ice-creams for us. I also enjoyed different Indian festivals like Diwali, Durga Puja, Holi and Ganesh Puja.As a Bengali, we were away from home but the place felt like home to us because there were Bengali associations and our main festival, Durga Puja was celebrated in a grand way. Puja brought joy for me because I got new clothes and sweets.My mother always insisted that I and my sister participate in cultural functions. It was a good experience. I doubt that I was a good performer but I always receive loads of applauses from the audience. I grew up and because of my studies; I did not have enough time to participate in such cultur al activities anymore after we returned to our native land.  I know that Mumbai has grown a lot as a city in the past few years but I remember the place as I have seen seventeen year ago. I can still visualize my house, the playground, the mountains and the bright springs.Sometimes I fear that if I ever return to the city, I won’t be able to recognize and accept the changes that have taken place. Moreover my friends and other people whom I have known, most of them have moved elsewhere or have changed with time. However I still wish to go back and visit the place where I have spend my childhood days. It would give me immense pleasure to re-live my childhood again.Work Citation:â€Å"Mumbai Travel Guide†. 8 November 2007. http://www.mumbai.org.uk/>   

Comparing to the American Dream essays

Comparing to the American Dream essays William Byrd was born in Virginia in 1674. William Byrd received a quality education in England. He returned to Virginia after learning of his father's death. Byrd now had the responsibility of managing his inherited plantation. William Byrd character was constant. In The Secret Diary of William Byrd of Westover, he recorded the highlights of his day. He was an early bird. He wrote that he would wake up no later than seven I the morning. Another observation I read that he loved to eat the same things. For instance, he would eat milk for breakfast and boiled beef for dinner. Byrd would either read Greek or Hebrew. I also noticed that Byrd would pray at the end of each day. It would end just about like this every time, I had good health, good thoughts, and good humor, thanks be to God Almighty. Byrd enjoyed games and company. He always had company in his home. Several times he cousin visited, Mr. Mumford accompanied Byrd as they walked in the garden, shot bows and arrows and play billiard until dinner time. Byrds friends, Drury Stith, Colonel Hill, Mr. Anderson and Mr. Platt also were some of William Byrds guest on the plantation. William Byrd was a plantation owner with a vast amount of slaves. Some of his slaves were sick and some even died on his plantation. A lot of times, Byrd spent most of his time looking after his sick. Different slaves had different jobs to do. Some would unload supplies from Byrds sloop which was a boat, cook the food, clean the chambers, plant trees such as peach trees, put up curtains and fed the animals because he had cattle. Slaves endured cruelty from William Byrd. He whipped some of them and branded one of his slaves because he pretended to be sick when asked to unload his ship. William Byrd recorded some of his sexual transgressions, for instance the Colonel Carters wife daughter and Mrs. Russell, and his wife who would sometimes go to...

baroque art1 essays

baroque art1 essays The baroque has been called a theatrical style, one that deals in spectacle, grandeur, and dramatic contrast. Test these concepts in an essay that discusses the baroque as an expression of the Catholic Reformation, Protestant devotionalism, the Scientific Revolution, and the Age of Absolutism. Define your general statements with specific examples. The following essay will discuss the baroque period and how the Catholic Reformation, Protestant devotionalism, and the Scientific Revolution influenced it. The Baroque period generally refers to the years 1600 to1750. Classicism of the Renaissance has been replenished during the Baroque period. During the Baroque artistic period, the exploration of the fundamental components of human nature and the realm of senses and emotions were very crucial. The Baroque era was a very dynamic time that showed an abundance of radiance and color. Artists of this time were passionate and sensual. Their works were many times considered to have an overpowering emotional effect. The superficial form of light was fascinated during this period due to the thoughts of godlike sun or the truth of the Holy Spirit. The Baroque naturalism maintains the religious themes in content. The elements of perception in the Baroque art are how we perceived the natural human figures are in motion through s pace, time, and light. We present and analyze the extent of human actions and passions in all its degrees of lightness, darkness, and intensity. The scientific revolution also had a tremendous impact on art during this time. Scientists started to study the earth and its positioning in the universe. This was a time when the people started take more of an interest in astronomy and mathematical equations. During the time of the Catholic Reformation artists began to challenge all the rules that society has set for artistic design. Artist starting with Parmigianino, Tintoretto, and E ...

What should organisations be concerned about in corporate rebranding Dissertation

What should organisations be concerned about in corporate rebranding from a strategic point of view - Dissertation Example Business firms use rebranding typically in an attempt to remove some negative associations, improve sales, giving it a modern look, or during mergers and acquisitions, to change the way the corporation is viewed. The issue of corporate-rebranding though quite popularly used amongst corporates to change identities and is seen featured regularly in business reviews and business related news, has been largely ignored largely by the academic/scholarly world, leading to a serious lack of research articles on this topic. Aim – The chief objective of this paper is to delineate the term corporate rebranding in addition to the various underlying theories that create a framework for the process. It also highlights the various contexts that often makes this process an important one for the corporate houses, while also focuses on the pitfalls that may turn rebranding into a total failure. Approach – The paper uses a qualitative and inductive methodology through literature review an d case studies to comprehend the various principles and theories of corporate rebranding. It uses case studies to present examples of corporate rebranding that were successful and those that failed, while evaluating the reasons behind their successes or failures. The research paper however has certain limitations where we find that there is a lack of academic or scholarly articles on this topic. There is no dearth of business reviews or press releases on this topic, but academicians, in general, have kept away from this subject. Corporates present an opaque front in cases where they have attempted rebranding and have failed. As for example, eircom, which had initially succeeded in its rebranding venture but now has a poor financial output, has removed the internal memorandums that it had circulated amongst its employees during rebranding, making the case study highly dependent on data derived from other researcher’s works. Even in cases of successful rebranding, all facts rel ated to the old identity are removed after sometime, to keep up with new brand image. Significance of the study – Despite a lack of research papers that have a theory-based approach on the topic, this paper attempts to create a well-studied and comprehensive framework on corporate rebranding that analyses both the pro and cons of the issue. 1 Introduction 1.1 Background study In recent times, observations reveal that there has been an increasing emphasis on using brands as a management strategy for achieving better business outcome (Balmer and Greyser, 2003). Increasing competition at a global level has led the corporates to feel a desire for uniqueness. If variables that give a firm its most unique value while helping it to gain a competitive edge over the rivals, are examined, corporate brand or image appear as most relevant

THE IMPACT OF DRESSING ROOM LIGHTING DIRECTIONS ON CONSUMER Research Paper

THE IMPACT OF DRESSING ROOM LIGHTING DIRECTIONS ON CONSUMER - Research Paper Example The hypothesis are whether there is a positive impact towards lighting in dressing rooms and whether the emotional state of mind of any buyer is affected by the lighting system thereof. The design of the retail stores in aspects of display of clothes, the entrance, space availed for shopping, the dressing space and finally the mood and atmosphere in general, plays a key role in attracting and maintaining customers. The satisfaction of any consumer who comes in the retail shop is at the core of business growth and survival. To the management team, it is vital to lay consideration of the atmosphere of the store and the mood that will arouse the customers for maximum satisfaction. It is very important to understand the mood of the consumer base in order to determine the aspects to focus on in store layout and design. One of the aspects that are mostly sensitized on is the lighting in the dressing room. This analysis looks into the impact in which lighting in the dressing rooms has had in consumer conceptions and perceived decisions. Research is being done on the environment and the effects on arousal of the customer, perceived outlook and finally in making the final p urchase. The dressing room is at the core where the consumer makes the overall decision whether to purchase the outfit or not. The look the customer perceives from the mirror view and the lighting of the room plays the key to decision making. Despite the fact that retailers have gone to extreme lengths to attract consumers with discounts and display the best outfits in stores, this fact alone cannot influence the final decision for making the purchase. A customer will spend more money if his/her shopping experience is satisfied to the maximum (Donovan et al., 1994). Lighting factors to be considered include the positioning of the light i.e. overhead, frontal, side by side or any other position; the amount of lighting dispensed i.e. too

Short story Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Short story Critique - Essay Example The point of view in this story is that of a third person. This is because the narrator is an unnamed entity, who conveys the story without being an actual character (Rasley 21). It is the best point of view, since this is a fictitious narrative. There is dialogue from the story, such as that between young princess Mali and her mother Viutiv, this conversation, and others contained therein help in guiding the reader through the series of events that led to the Mali Kingdom’s downfall. The dialogues also suit the characters properly, for instance when the foreign prince states â€Å"Tell them how you pillaged and raided defenseless Oaungbre towns, laying waste to man, woman, and beast alike†, it is a clear indicator that he is speaking from a place of anguish and anger. The writer is articulate, making it easy to identify characters speaking at all times. The ending, just like the beginning is equally captivating and undoubtedly makes one want to read about other vengean ce plans the prince had for the royal family and Mali as a whole. It is difficult to discern weaknesses in this story, owing to the clear expression of ideas by the writer, and in a smooth flowing manner. Nevertheless, making the narrative more dramatic would intrigue readers even further; it would also be advisable for the writer to show how the royal family interacted with common civilians prior to the downfall. This would help the audience to identify and sympathize with the main character. A Thin Line The title of this story easily capture’s a reader’s attention. The beginning also introduces an aspect of curiosity among the characters, which translates to curiosity among readers as well. The presence of police and ambulances, as indicated by the flashing lights and... The title of this story easily capture’s a reader’s attention. The beginning also introduces an aspect of curiosity among the characters, which translates to curiosity among readers as well. The presence of police and ambulances, as indicated by the flashing lights and hovering onlookers gives the impression that an injurious crime must have taken place, and it is only natural to ponder over these events. However, the story lacks a smooth transition into the narration of events that occurred months earlier culminating in the beginning scene. The point of view is that of a third party since the narrator is uninvolved and unnamed. This story has numerous dialogues such as that between a character named Alexis and her mum. It is also difficult to tell the person speaking, an excellent illustration of this obscurity being the statement â€Å"Hey, just ignore her. Please Kevin everyone is having a good time and it has been more than two months since you guys broke up. You n eed to just move on and leave Jamie alone.†

The Breakdown of the Union Essay Example for Free

The Breakdown of the Union Essay Manifest Destiny is a phrase that expressed the belief that the United States had a divinely inspired mission to expand, spreading its form of democracy and freedom.The phrase Manifest Destiny was first used primarily by Jackson Democrats in the 1840s to promote the annexation of much of what is now the Western United States (the Oregon Territory, the Texas Annexation, and the Mexican Cession). Slavery, the exploitation of Africans for hard labor, was also growing vastly in popularity during this period of territorial expansion. These controversial ideologies, including such events as Mexican War, the Wilmont Provisio, the development of the Republican Party, the Dred Scott Decision, the Brooks-Sumner Incident, the Anthony Burns Incident, the Ostend Manifesto, Uncle Toms Cabin, and unbalanced congressional representation aided in sending the Union into uproar and eventually splitting it entirely. The Mexican War between the United States and Mexico began with a Mexican attack on American troops along the southern border of Texas on Apr. 25, 1846. Fighting ended when U.S. Gen. Winfield Scott occupied Mexico City on Sept. 14, 1847; a few months later a peace treaty was signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo. In addition to recognizing the U.S. annexation of Texas, defeated Mexico ceded California and , New Mexico (including all the present-day states of the Southwest) to the United States. During the war political quarrels arose regarding the disposition of conquered Mexico. A strong All-Mexico movement urged annexation of the entire territory. Abolitionists opposed that position and fought for the exclusion of slavery from any territory absorbed by the United States. In 1847 the House of Representatives passed the Wilmot Proviso, stipulating that none of the territory acquired should be open to slavery. The Senate avoided the issue, and a late attempt to add it to the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was defeated. A major cause of conflict between the Southern slave states and the Northern free states was the lack of assistance given by northerners to southern slave-owners and their agents seeking to recapture escaped slaves. In 1850 Congress passed the Fugitive Slave Law. The law stated that in future any federal marshal who did not arrest an alleged runaway slave could be fined $1,000. People suspected of being a runaway slave could be arrested without  warrant and turned over to a claimant on nothing more than his sworn testimony of ownership. The Fugitive Slave Law brought the issue home to anti-slavery citizens in the North, since it made them and their institutions responsible for enforcing slavery. Even moderate abolitionists were now faced with the immediate choice of defying what they believed an unjust law or breaking with their own conscience and belief. The case of Anthony Burns, in which a fugitive slave was returned to slavery under the protest of 50,000 citizens of Boston, and the celebration of the abolitionist, Charles Sumners assault by Preston S. Brooks, fell under this statute. The Ostend Manifesto was a secret document written in 1854 by U.S. diplomats at Ostend, Belgium, describing a plan to acquire Cuba from Spain. The document declared that Cuba is as necessary to the North American republic as any of its present members, and that it belongs naturally to that great family of states of which the Union is the Providential Nursery. The aggressively worded document, and Soulà ©s advocacy of slavery, caused outrage among Northerners who felt it was a Southern attempt to extend slavery. American free-soilers, just recently stirred with the Fugitive Slave Law passed as part of the Compromise of 1850, decried the manifesto of brigands. Thus the American scheme to capture Cuba fizzled. Meeting in a Ripon, Wisconsin Congregational Church on February 28, 1854 some thirty opponents of the Nebraska Act called for the organization of a new political party and suggested that Republican would be the most appropriate name. The radicals also took a leading role in the creation of the Republican Party in many northern states during the summer of 1854 . While conservatives and many moderates were content merely to call for the restoration of the Missouri Compromise or a prohibition of slavery extension, the radicals insisted that no further political compromise with slavery was possible. In the following years, this anti-slavery party would gain many followers. By 1856 the Republicans had elected a Republican Speaker of the House of Representatives and placed a candidate in the election for president. In the Election of 1860, Abraham Lincoln would become inaugurated as a member of the Republican party, defeating John  Breckinridge, Stephen Douglas, and John Bell of the Southern Democratic Party, Northern Democratic Party, and Constitutional Union respectively. Dred Scott was an American slave who was taken first to Illinois, a free state, and then to Minnesota, a free territory, for an extended period of time, and then back to the slave state of Missouri. After his original master died, he sued for his freedom. He initially won his freedom from a Missouri lower court, but the decision was reversed by the Missouri Supreme Court and remanded to the trial court. Simultaneously, Scott had filed suit in federal court, where, after prevailing on the issue of his status as a citizen of Missouri, he lost a trial by jury. Scott appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which used the case to fundamentally change the legal balance of power in favor of slaveholders. The Court ruled that: 1. No Negroes, not even free Negroes, could ever become citizens of the United States. They were beings of an inferior order not included in the phrase all men in the Declaration of Independence nor afforded any rights by the Constitution. 2. The exclusion of slavery from a U.S. territory in the Missouri Compromise was an unconstitutional deprivation of property (Negro slaves) without due process prohibited by the Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. 3. Dred Scott was not free, because Missouri law alone applied after he returned there. The decision was a culmination of what many at that time considered was a push to expand slavery. The expansion of the territories and resulting admission of new states meant that the longstanding Missouri Compromise would cause the loss of political power in the South as all new states would be admitted as free states. Thus, Democratic party politicians sought repeal of the Missouri Compromise and were finally successful in 1854 with the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which naturally ended the compromise. Overall the reaction to the decision from opponents of slavery was fierce. Uncle Toms Cabin was the best-selling novel of the 19th century (and the second best-selling book of the century after the Bible) and is credited with both helping to start the American Civil War and helping to fuel the abolitionist cause in the United States. This era also marked a dramatic  increase in congressional representation for free states. Compared to the overall equality of representation in senate and minor favoring of free states in the House during 1813, an 1860 summation exhibits a vast tip in the scale for free states over slave states. An unfair congress meant anger and conflict in the unaffiliated south, as well as future secession. At the advent of the mid-1800s, the Union faced perilous difficulties that seemed only to be solvable by war. By 1861, Civil catastrophe was inevitable, and the differences that initially split the nation soon engulfed it. Conflicts including the Mexican War, the Wilmont Provisio, the growth of the Republican Party, the Dred Scott Decision, the Brooks-Sumner Incident, the Anthony Burns Incident, the Ostend Manifesto, Uncle Toms Cabin, and unbalanced congressional representation contributed to national dispute and eventual dissemination of the state.

Corporate strategies of Skanska Construction

Corporate strategies of Skanska Construction Strategic planning and strategic management have attracted continuing interest from both researchers and executives over past decades. Strategic decision making although recently taken into account in the construction industry is one of the key drivers of success. Since construction is a project-based and highly fragmented industry, corporate strategies are difficult to develop. Studies so far point out the significance of project management competencies in delivering successful projects, however the organizational performance heavily rely on the effectiveness of the strategic decisions made by the companies based on their competitive resources and the market conditions where they operate. In this work, a world-known construction company, Skanska Construction from Sweden, is taken as a case and its corporate strategies together with its competitive resources are analyzed. Future directions for the company are discussed in the light of the challenges faced by the company. Keywords: Corporate strategy, construction industry, strategic analysis. INTRODUCTION It is generally considered that modern organizations should develop long term strategies in the face of an increasingly dynamic and competitive world. Porter (1980, 1985) suggested that a company needs to develop a competitive strategy in order to achieve competitive advantage in a market economy. Strategy has grown from a practice of military commanders and corporate executives into the field of management science. It has enjoyed contributions from various disciplines such as economics, organizational sociology, political science and cognitive psychology (Rumelt et al., 1994). Differing perspectives of strategy development and implementation have evolved, centering generally on ones view of the capacity and motives of individuals and organizations (Whittington, 2001). Mainstream strategic studies, however, have not typically considered the construction industry, and conventional thought within the industry has often downplayed strategys significance. Strategy is defined as a plan, pattern, position, perspective, and ploy (Mintzberg et al., 1998). Its significant effect on performance is demonstrated empirically in the literature (Porter, 1980). Emphasizing the importance of strategic decision, Child (1972) also stated that companies can achieve higher organizational performance by adopting different competitive positioning alternatives based on strategic decisions. Lately, construction industry researchers have changed this perception to some degree as publications regarding strategic management have increased. Warszawski (1996) outlined a methodological procedure for strategic planning in construction companies. Serving as somewhat of a primer to construction professionals on the topic, he discussed the definition of companys mission, the significance of business environment, and a broad outline of the steps involved in analyzing a companys resources. His elaboration on the development of competitive strategy was based largely on Porters (1980) theory of generic strategy. Chinowsky and Meredith (2000) conducted a survey to identify areas of strategic concern that construction organizations need to emphasize. Venegas and Alarcon (1997) were the first to propose a simplified model of variables affecting strategic decisions before recommending a mathematical model to predict the impact of the decisions. In this paper, the corporate strategies of a very well known Swedish construction company, Skanska Construction, will be analyzed. In doing so, first of all the components of corporate strategy will be investigated based on a literature review. The performance models that examined the importance of strategies and competitive resources will also be included as a part of this study. The major section will deal with Skanskas success based on its corporate strategies and competitive resources. Besides, the external factors including the market conditions together will be discussed along with the future directions of the company. CORPORATE STRATEGY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Corporate Strategy Cheah and Garvin (2004) developed a framework to define corporate strategy. The model divides corporate strategy into seven strategic fields as shown in Figure 1. All strategic fields rightly are separate, major components within the realm of corporate strategy. Whereas some strategic models such as Porters (1985) value chain concept treated activities like human resource (HR) management merely as supporting activities, this model casts these strategic fields as distinct areas since they have currently evolved into disciplines requiring separate planning and execution. As evidence, most business schools at present offer separate courses for each of these fields after a general treatment of the topic of strategic management. Figure 1: Framework for corporate strategy (Cheah and Garvin, 2004) The following sections summarize the dimensions of corporate strategy being HR strategy, financial strategy, business strategy, operational strategy, IT strategy, marketing strategy, and technology strategy. HR strategy In essence, HR strategy is more concerned about the aspects of managing human assets of an organization. HR strategy deals with (Cheah and Garvin, 2004): personnel management (e.g. training programs; job rotation among functions and geographical regions); industrial relations (e.g. employment law; union-management relationship; negotiation tactics and strategy); incentives and compensation policies and systems; and restructuring concerns (e.g. downsizing). The goal of HR strategy is to have an effective system for obtaining (recruiting), training, mobilizing and managing the human assets of an organization to systematically carry out business operations and new ventures. Financial strategy There are two fundamental aspects in financial strategy: investment decisions and financing decisions. During investment decisions, firms are confronted with the challenges of capital budgeting and financial resource allocation. In order to make better decisions, managers must select the appropriate tools for project analysis and evaluation, which include, but are not limited to, the net present value (NPV) method, decision tree analysis, optimization, portfolio planning and real option valuation. Behind these tools lies a common and fundamental principle of balancing risk and return (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Financing decisions, on the other hand, are concerned with issues of capital structure. In providing the detailed mechanics, Grinblatt and Titman (1998) showed how investment and financing decisions could impact the corporate strategy as a whole. Business strategy Business strategy is defined as strategies adopted to ensure successful ventures of individual business units, whereas corporate strategy is concerned with operations of the entire organization. This distinction is obviously consistent with the model, since business strategy is one of the seven core fields of the overall structure (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Business strategy formally deals with the development of competitive advantage and core competencies. In particular, Porters (1980, 1985) techniques such as the determination of uniqueness and cost drivers, the Five Forces model, and the market segmentation matrix are some commonly known concepts in formulating business strategy. Operational strategy Operational strategy is primarily concerned with execution and implementation how firms manage their operational processes to convert different inputs into final products and services. These activities might include inbound and outbound logistics, procurement functions, production processes for physical products such as precast components, and procedural functions for service provision. For contractors, these activities are analogous to most project management functions such as material procurement, construction of the physical structure, and management of labor and machinery. Likewise, service firms utilize their expertise and knowledge to assist clients in fulfilling their needs and goals, as in planning, design and engineering functions (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). IT strategy In this conceptual model, IT strategy is separated from technology strategy. Specifically, IT strategy focuses mainly on the use of technology to leverage information to the advantage of a firm. This contrasts with other types of technology development in general. This distinction is justified by the fact that information technology has grown into a separate market segment and research area since the mid-1990s (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). IT is often taken as the driver of corporate strategy. More appropriately, it should be treated as an enabler that connects the corporate strategy of a firm with its operational processes (Ross and Rockart, 1999). In many aspects, the current trends of IT investment and implementation within the construction industry still appear to follow very vague goals. Too often, participants from the industry investing in IT (at least during initial stages) have forgotten their original identity as firms that provide construction services, thereby putting their core competencies at stake. In many cases, these investments are lacking in terms of establishing linkages between processes and corporate strategy in the long run (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Marketing strategy In manufacturing and other industries that sell physical products, the Four Ps (product, price, place and promotion) in conventional marketing management remains relevant at present, though changes in technology and IT have redefined the boundary and meaning of these components (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Although construction is mainly service-oriented (except suppliers or vendors who are selling physical products), many of these concepts can be applied to selected parts of the construction value chain. For example, in terms of promotion, marketing strategy is especially important in signaling to clients the value created from the design of products and services in order to demand a price premium differentiation is meaningless unless clients are able to perceive the value added that suits their unique needs. To achieve this, firms need to identify both needs (demand) and resources (supply factors), and choose the most efficient means of service provision. Some common corporate involv ement in marketing strategy includes: umbrella branding and reputation building; logistics issues (a critical factor toward lean construction); and collection of information about clients needs (e.g. to improve facility operation and maintenance) (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Technology strategy Tatum (1988) illustrated that the range of possible technology-based strategies for construction firms is wide. At present, choices and means for technology development still remain as the most basic questions in technology strategy. Three primary issues particularly stand out. The first issue is the notion of pioneer versus follower. Not surprisingly, whether one should be at the bleeding edge of the technology wave as a first mover is always a tough decision to make. This is especially true when technological trends are shaped by uncertain environmental factors. The second issue deals with integration. Large Japanese contractors, for example, have their own research institutes and tend to develop their technology internally. Third, firms have to assess the relative importance between basic and applied research in order to allocate resources accordingly (Cheah and Garvin, 2004). Corporate performance in construction Based on Isiks (2009) work, a construction companys performance is mainly determined by the strategic decisions made and resources and capabilities of the firm. External factors, strength of relationships, project management competencies, and project performance are the other factors of success. These variables are listed in Table 1. Since this papers major objective is to discuss the corporate strategy and competitive resources impacting on the success of a construction firm, the main emphasis is on the strategic decisions and resources and capabilities leading to success as defined by Isik (2009). Construction organizations have long been criticized for a lack of long-term strategic planning and management (Veshoskyi, 1994; Chinovsky and Meredith, 2000). The literature on strategic decision-making is spread over a wide range from an individual strategists perspective to strategic management techniques, to the implementation of these techniques in real situations (Globerson, 1985; Letza, 1996; Warszawski, 1996; Neely et al., 1997). The strategies adopted in Isiks (2009) work represent the characteristics of the construction industry as a project-based organization. These strategies are summarized in the following section. Table 1: Factors affecting the corporate performance for construction firms (Isik, 2009) Corporate strategies in construction firms: Corporate strategy can be seen as the linking process between the management of the organizations internal resources and its external relationships with its customers, suppliers, competitors and the economic and social environment in which it exists. The organisation develops these relationships from its abilities and resources. Hence, the organisation uses its history, skills, resources, knowledge and various concepts to explore its future actions (Adnan and Jusoff, 2009). The industry environment is the set of factors that directly influences a firm and its competitive actions and competitive response; the threats of new entrants, the power of suppliers, the power of buyers, the threat of product substitutes and the intensity of rivalry among competitors. An opportunity is a condition in the general environment that if, exploited helps a company achieve strategic competitiveness. A threat is a condition in the general environment that may hinder a companys efforts to achieve strate gic competitiveness. The resources of an organisation include its human resource skills, the investment and the capital in every part of the organisation. Organisations need to develop corporate strategies to optimise the use of these resources. Differentiation strategies refer to the differentiation of products or services that provides competitive advantage and allows a company to deal effectively with the threat of new entrants to the market (Porter, 1980). Many new construction companies enter the industry every year because starting a new company does not require a large investment; consequently the construction industry becomes more competitive and forces existing companies to seek advantages over competitors by means of differentiation strategies. Market, project, client and partner selection strategies are related to the characteristics of construction projects such as the location and complexity of the project, environmental conditions, availability of competent subcontractors, availability of materials, equipment and know-how locally, financial stability of the client, and potential partners that have capabilities that the company does not possess. Project management strategies can be developed by referring to the mission of the company and the companys business environment. The managerial functions of a project include activities such as planning, cost control, quality control, risk management, safety management, to name but a few. In order to achieve project goals, adequate strategies have to be set up relative to these functions. Investment strategies occur along several dimensions such as capabilities of the company (resources), pricing (financial decisions), product (construction project related factors), and finally research and development (Spence, 1979). Organizational management strategies involve decisions pertaining to the companys reporting structure, planning, controlling and coordinating systems, as well as the management of the informal relations among the different parties within the company (Barney, 1991). Resources and capabilities: The strategic management literature defines resources and capabilities as the strengths of a company. Given the competitive environment among the rivals, resources and capabilities cannot be assumed to be identical in every company (Porter, 1980; Barney, 1991). According to the resource-based perspective mentioned by Barney (1991), a companys resources and capabilities have to be valuable, rare, inimitable, and should lack substitutes to have a positive effect on performance. Only if these conditions are met can resources and capabilities be transformed into a source of competitive advantage (Barney 1991). It follows that a construction companys equipment, manpower, technical, and managerial know-how should be efficient, cost-effective, rare, and sophisticated enough to prevent imitation by competitors. Financial resources indicate a companys strength in the market in terms of its capacity to carry out projects. Adequate financial resources ensure the company can get into risky situations that have a prospect of high returns. As a companys financial strength increases, its credibility and reputation also increases among clients and suppliers (Warszawski, 1996). The majority of construction projects are funded by the owner who pays the contractor periodically, who in turn pays the subcontractors, the suppliers and other parties of the project for services rendered. The success of this routine depends on the financial strength of the owner as well as of the contractor (Gunhan and Arditi, 2005). Technical competency refer to the physical assets of a company such as machinery and equipment and the extent of technical know-how available that is necessary to undertake specific projects. According to Warszawski (1996), a companys technical competency can be assessed by analyzing the companys preferred construction methods, the experience of its technical staff, the productivity and speed of its construction activities and the quality of the companys output. Leadership involves developing and communicating mission, vision, and values to the members of an organization. A successful leadership is expected to create an environment for empowerment, innovation, learning and support (Shirazi, 1996). Researchers have examined the links between leadership styles and performance. Fiedler (1996), have emphasized the effectiveness of a leader as a major determinant in success or failure of a group, organization, or even an entire country. Experience is highly related to a companys knowledge management competency. Organizational learning can be effective only if the lessons learned from completed projects are kept in the organizational memory and used in future projects (Kululanga and McCaffer, 2001). Organizational learning is difficult for companies because of the fragmented and project-based structure of the industry. This difficulty can be altered by knowledge management activities and provision of a continuous organizational learning culture (Ozorhon et al., 2005). The image of the company compared with its competitors is important. As in all market-oriented industries, contractors also need to portray an image that fits the needs of the market and the clients targeted. It gives an impression of the products, services, strategies, and prospects compare to its competitors (Fombrun and Shanley, 1990). Contractors in construction industry have to portray an image that addresses the expectation and demand of the clients and users, like in all other market oriented industries. Moreover, image of a company may enable higher profitability by attracting better clients and investors and increasing the value of the product (Fombrun, 1986). Research and development capability is a response to increased industry requirements that occurred as a result of globalization and competition between the companies. Developments occur in all phases of the construction process and technologies emerge that are deemed to have a positive impact on competitive advantage. In contrast to the traditional conservative stance of the industry, construction companies are forced to develop and adopt new technologies in order to survive. Innovation capability is an important factor in achieving cost leadership, focus, and differentiation, hence enhancing competitiveness as stated in Porter (1980). A companys ability to innovate is related to the industry in which it operates. The traditional characteristics of the construction favor cost leadership obtained through lowest bids and focus obtained through specialization (e.g., tall buildings, sewage systems etc.) as the predominant competitive advantages. According to Arditi et al. (1997) innovations are rather incremental than radical in construction industry. The construction is a supplier dominated industry. Construction companies are dependent on other industries for innovations such as construction materials, equipment other than the technological innovations such as new construction processes and methods. Alternative corporate structures, financing methods etc. can also be added as the potential innovation areas in construction industry (Arditi et al. 1997). SKANSKA CONSTRUCTIONS CORPORATE STRATEGY Skanska AB is one of the worlds largest construction enterprises. With headquarters in Sweden, the Skanska group employs 54,000 people worldwide and provides construction-related services and project development. They create sustainable solutions and aim to be a leader in quality, green construction, work safety and business ethics. They also aim to maximize the potential of Skanska with regard to returns. They are a Fortune 500 company and a member of the UN Global Compact. Skanska is one of the worlds ten largest construction companies. Background of Skanska A brief history of Skanska is found in the website that reads (Skanska, 2010): The origin of the company dates back to 1887 when Aktiebolaget Skà ¥nska Cementgjuteriet was established and started by manufacturing concrete products. We quickly diversified into a construction company and within ten years the company received its first international orders. Through the 20th Century we played an important role in building Swedens infrastructure, including roads, power plants, offices and housing. In the mid-1950s, Skà ¥nska Cementgjuteriet made a major move into international markets. During the next decades we entered South America, Africa and Asia, and in 1971 the US market. The US is now our largest market and Skanska ranks among the largest in the construction sector. Today, Africa and Asia are not included in our home market concept. The company was listed on the Stockholm Stock Exchange A-list in 1965. In 1984 Skanska became the Groups official name. During the 1990s, Skanska initiated its most expansive phase ever. Sales doubled in only a few years. While the major portion of this growth was organic, a string of successful acquisitions also paved the way for Skanskas growth into a global company. Since the beginning of the 21st Century profitability rather than growth is a strong focus. The operations are streamlined to construction and development of residential, commercial and infrastructure projects in selected home markets in Europe and America. Skanska offers construction services in all of their home markets Sweden, the US, UK, Norway, Finland and Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic and Slovakia and in Latin America. Skanskas management structure is shown in Figure 2. Figure 2: Skanskas management structure (Skanska, 2009) Skanska aims to be a financial and qualitative leader. Their financial targets reflect the ambition to exceed the industry norm. In each of their geographic markets and specific segments, they have established what we call outperform targets. In addition to the financial targets and as means to reach them they have also adopted qualitative targets. The qualitative targets are expressed in Skanskas five zeros vision (Skanska, 2010): Zero loss-making projects. Loss makers destroy profitability and customer relationships Zero accidents, whereby the safety of their personnel as well as subcontractors, suppliers and general public is ensured at and around their projects Zero environmental incidents, by which their projects should be executed in a manner that minimizes environmental impact Zero ethical breaches, meaning that they take a zero tolerance approach to any form of bribery or corruption Zero defects, with the double aim of improving the bottom line and increasing customer satisfaction. The qualitative targets, as expressed in the five zeros, reflect their core values. The five zeros as well as the financial targets also provide the basis for incentive systems at various levels within Skanska. Markets of operation and market strategies of Skanska Skanska is active in selected home markets in Europe, the US and Latin America. In the US, which is their single largest market, they are a leading company within building and civil engineering projects. They are also targeting the US Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) segment. In the Nordic region, Czech Republic, Slovakia and Poland, their operations cover the construction and investment businesses. In Latin America, they are mainly active in the oil, gas and energy sector and in PPP. In the UK, they are a leading player in construction as well as within PPP. In 2006, there were 67 891 companies operating in the construction sector in Sweden. The biggest companies are Skanska, NCC and Peab. There has been an increase in the competition from foreign companies over the last years. It has been a rising market in 2006-2007. During the last four years the investments have increased with 5-10 %. However, due to the current market weakness, there was a decline in 2009. There is no legislation in Sweden stipulating how construction work and services should be performed. Instead, there are general conditions which have been developed by organizations and parties operating within the Swedish Construction Sector. Figure 3 shows the geographical markets of operation of Skanska including Sweeden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, Estonia, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, UK, US, and Latin America. Figure 3: Markets of operation of Skanska (Skanska, 2010) Skanska attaches special importance to metropolitan regions, which often demonstrate higher growth than their respective country as a whole. Skanska offers many of the products and services that are needed in growing cities workplaces, schools, hospitals, sports and leisure facilities, as well as housing and infrastructure for transportation, energy and water. In individual markets, Skanska operates today only in certain segments, but by taking advantage of its collective expertise, the Group can enhance its opportunities for growth and higher earnings in these markets (Skanska, 2009). Competitive advantage of Skanska (resources and capabilities) In Isik et als (2010) work, resources and capabilities was found to be most influential on company performance. The critical importance of the resources and capabilities of a company was also emphasized in the literature. The strategic management literature defines resources and capabilities as the strengths of a company. Given the competitive environment among the rivals, resources and capabilities cannot be assumed to be identical in every company (Porter, 1980; Barney, 1991). Skanskas distinctive resources that create competitive advantage for them are as follows (Skanska, 2009): Size: Being a market leader positions Skanska well with the most demanding customers. Its stature also provides access to the best suppliers, which can live up to Skanskas promises to customers regarding timely delivery and quality as well as safety and ethics. Skanskas size gives it an advantage in the most complex assignments, where it uses its collective experience and know-how to meet the demands of customers. Only a few companies can compete for the type of projects where, aside from price, comprehensive solutions and lifecycle costs are of crucial importance. The Groups size and international profile are also attractive qualities in the recruitment of new employees. Technical competency: BIM, a computer-based method for detailed panning, coordination and more efficient execution à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ shall be used in Skanskas design-build projects, in which Skanska is responsible for both design and construction. BIM means greater standardization and also improves Skanskas ability to utilize the savings potential of its corporate-level purchasing efforts. Human resources: Skanskas skilled, dedicated employees combine expertise with the Groups overall focus on sustainable development in order to successfully deliver projects to customers. The Groups ability to transfer knowledge between different geographic markets also contributes to its strength. Image of the company: Skanskas brand has been built up during more than 120 years of working in many different countries. One element of the brand is the Groups Code of Conduct, which includes policies on employee relations, health and safety, the environment and business ethics. Financial resources: Financial strength is an important factor in maintaining the confidence of customers and capital markets in Skanska. It also enables the Group to invest in project development and assume responsibility for and invest in major privately financed infrastructure projects. Innovation capability: Business units of the Skanska Group specialize in project development or construction but often collaborate in specific projects. This strengthens the Groups customer focus and creates the prerequisites for the sharing of best practices, while ensuring efficient utilization of the Groups collective competence and financial resources. To take further advantage of synergies and bring together the Companys expertise, a number of support services are available to all units. These include the Skanska Knowledge Map, a web-based intranet tool that visualizes experts and teams of experts from Skanska on a global basis in selected strategic areas, for example Building Information Modeling (BIM), Green Business and Design/Build. By utilizing its specialized expertise in planning and executing projects, Skanska improves risk control, which in turn results in higher quality and profitability. Global collaboration thus leverages both earnings potential and the Groups abilit y to satisfy the needs of its customers. In the Skanska Group there are both operational and financial synergies that generate increased value for their shareholders. By being a global player, Skanska generates operational synergies mainly due to the potential for taking advantage of the local specialized expertise found globally in various business areas. Shared purchasing activities and product development also boost efficiency and contribute to greater synergies in the organization. The Construction business stream operates with negative working capital and generates a positive cash flow over time. This cash flow is invested in the Groups project development business streams, which have enjoyed very good return on invested capital. These investments also enable Construction to obtain new assignments that generate a profit for the business stream. Figure 4 illustrates how this system works. Figure 4: Synergies at Ska